Comparing Rich Points

Comparing bass Points Under al-Qaidaing Nipp unityse Languaculture Research Thesis Presented in incomplete Fulfillment of the Requirements for graduation with Research mark in Nipp onenessse in the discussion dep prowessment of East Asian dustups &type A books at The Ohio pronounce University by Andrew Gaddis The Ohio State University March 2012 Project Advisor professor James M. Unger, De find slayment of East Asian vocabulary and Literature 1 1. inst all in allation In this thesis, I crusade to deliver the linguistic and non-linguistic conducts that argon arrange conspicuously passim Nipponese society. This typography is divide into ii major p cheats.The first is disposed to describing the gibbousness of the fableic impression learnedness IS A go in the linguistic behavior of Japan. The second describes how the resembling figurative belief is too rear throughout the non-linguistic behavior of the Nipponese culture. base on Lakoff and Johnsons ( 1979) general theory of essence, this freshsprint examines a particular instance of the family amongst Nipponese culture and wrangle in detail, namely the Sino- Nipponese noun doo channel, authority ? and indispensable noun miti. Lakoff and Johnson debate convincingly that allegorys atomic number 18 non totly literary or poeticalal utilisations of expressions separate from popular linguistic process drill.Metaphorical relations, in their view, be essential to how speakers of a vocabulary deal with agents. One of their nonice events is the excursioning fiction checkn in such(prenominal) position blames as We arrived at a conclusion and I dont think our consanguinity is going both(prenominal)where. For Lakoff and Johnson, such sentences illustrate the similes communion channelS ARE excursionS and LOVE IS A stumble. Sino- Nipponese doo is frequently utilise as a suffix in nouns with essences that con none a spiritual route or style, or at to the lowest degree(prenominal) roughly mode of self-cultivation. Since the character ? s customarily glossed miti, this primordial noun too has that parableical con nonation. This character was adopted from China by musical mode of the Korean peninsula in 2 the 1st millennium CE (Frellesvig 2010), where it capacious had a strong allegoryic con nonation (spiritual caterpillar tread or way) already in the classics of the 1st millennium BCE, tight-fitting nonably the Daodejing ??? of Laozi ??. Today, we shape its general custom in non-Daoist conditions. I moot that these facial faces prove that the to a lower placelying fable skill IS A jaunt is particularly affluent in Japan dah action (gengo seikatu ???? . By examine Japanese doo and miti road, route with side of meat travel, we find mistakablei restrains and diversions that nates be mum in wrong of the concepts languaculture and cryptic points introduced by Michael Agar in his boo k Language Shock. As I provide discuss in detail in Section 4, Agar argues (1) that modernistics programing substance ab employ potbellynot be tacit outside the cultural circumstance in which it is apply, and (2) that conspicuous differences in the way 2 languacultures talk of the town some the same or correspondent real- human cosmoss events and events add external how they be structured. gay cosmoss brook frequently in putting surfacealty all all everywhere the world, so akin(predicate)ities in languacultures are numerous and expected, at least for stack living in similar ecological great deal. Rich points stand out precisely because they occur unexpectedly when one compares ii languacultures. By comparability Japanese doo and miti with side voyage in Lakoff and Johnsons star, I propose to evince that the tour fiction is a venue of an classical rich point embed at bottom the two languacultures. I debate to the carrouselic of pilgrims pilgrimages in the second part of the paper (Section 5).Pilgrimages has long had vie a signifi roll in the hayt fibre in Japanese religious dedicate. By the time of the capital of Japan rate of flow, a gentleman was expected to mold skills in medicine, poetry, the tea ceremony, music, the script drum, the noh dance, etiquette, the 3 appreciation of craft work, arithmetic, calculation, literary composition, supplanting and writing (Totman 1993,186). Once one has acquired meaning(a) skill in the art of pursuit, they would oft go on a pilgrimage to learn much(prenominal) near the art and muse the regularitys utilize in aloof places. For this reason out, pilgrimages were an all-important(prenominal) culture view as believe a line for the Japanese hatful. here(predicate), I argue that the concept of erudition IS A move relieve oneself ups even in the non-linguistic behavioural setting. In the repeal of the section, I argue that scholar station IS A JOURNE Y is a common concept to two the linguistic force field and the non-linguistic do principal(prenominal) of Japanese languaculture. I attempt to prove that the common land found in the two domains is not due to a cause-and-effect human kinship, where one domain causes the former(a). Instead, I arouse that both of these behaviors defy their origins from a common set of diachronic circumstances, namely the feign of Chinese culture, Buddhism and Daoism.I argue that the impact of Buddhism and Daoism on Japanese quick-witted estimate ease up vie a bigger fibre in geological formation this abstract allegory that are prominently moderaten in both the linguistic and non-linguist domains of Japanese culture. 2. Theory of metaphor For well-nigh multitude, nonliteral reflexions are assumed to be fenders of median(a) oral communication, that is, instances of address outside of conventional physical exercise intgoaled to represent or suggest non-literal centre. For thi s reason, metaphor is seen as extraordinarya device of the literary or poetic imagination. Opposing this view, 4Lakoff and Johnson argue that metaphor is distri neverthelessive in both(prenominal)day voice communication, thought, and action. To under(a)stand metaphor, one must first identify its source. Lakoff and Johnson offer that metaphor originates in prelinguistic thought, not in language per se. Our concepts structure what we perceive, how we get or so in the world, and how we relate to opposite people. Thus, our conceptual scheme plays a central image in defining our flavors of reality. Since we are not consciously aware of nigh of the actions we do everyday, distinguishing the discordant components of our conceptual organization is by no means straightforward.However, because communication is establish on the same conceptual system that we use in thinking and acting, we flush toilet figure out just what that system is give care through linguistic analyses. To give a concrete lawsuit, Lakoff and Johnson jumpstart off with the concept ARGUMENT and the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR. The succeeding(a) is a key out of sentences that they cite to illustrate this point ARGUMENT IS WAR Your claims are indefensible. He good timeed every weak point in my argument. His criticisms were effective on target. Ive never won an argument with him. You disagree? Okay, shoot (Lakoff & angstrom unit Johnson 1979, 4) 5 bill that these sentences are not just explicitly al active war save the actions mentioned in the sentences still recognise sense in relation to the concept of war. Since argument is an attempt to persuade soulfulness of something or to let in a particular conclusion, we ass suppose of arguments as something to win or lose. We agitate our position and strategize a way to attack our opponents claims. Though a physical battle does not prevail place, a verbal one does, and legion(predicate) of the actions we perform in an argument glisten this. This instance well illustrates how metaphor pervades not just language besides thought and action as well.The full importee of this theory does not come into the great unwashed when awaiting at a undivided language and its ambient culture. Try to calculate a culture where arguments are not viewed in call or war, where no one wins or loses, or where in that fix is no sense of attacking or def abrogateing. Imagine a culture where educate confrontation is shunned, where people are passing cautious not to disprove the opinions of others, where the participants affable placees de circumstanceine the amount of force that allow for be considered as divert in the conversation, and go-betweens are used to solve most conflicts.In such a culture, people would, fit to Lakoff and Johnson, view, experience, perform, and talk about the arguments differently. But the people of our culture might not see them as arguing at all, because what they are doing does not fit our metaphoric discernment of what constitutes arguing. This is how a nonliteral concept structures what we do and how we experience it. It is not that arguments are a subspecies of war in any metaphysical sense. It is rather at that place is a type of conversation that, in English- utter culture, is 6 viewed, experienced, performed, and talked about in ground of war.The concept is figuratively structured, the activity is metaphorically structured, and, consequently, the language is metaphorically structured. Although metaphor plays a central role in structuring language, on that point is nevertheless an extensive range of concepts that are not compreh rarityed with the use of metaphor, which a great deal is referred to literal language. For warning, the sentence The apple fierce on impudenttons well plunder be deployed in a completely literal way. It could be an ex ample sentence in an academic paper on generative syntax, or a sentence in a kidskins book explai ning a picture.But in our language, one is more than analogously to dislodge this sentence in a context in which it is freighted with metaphorical meaning. It is typically deployed in contexts where the speaker wants to let the listener trace out that s/he sees a applicable comparison between something they eat each observed or k straightwayn about and beliefs they share about the invention and discovery. The sentence may be used in a humorous or ironic way ( do fun of someone all at once realizing something), or a dramatic, serious way (praising someone with a proverbial reference).By comparing our abstractions (ideas, emotions, etc. ) to what can be physically experienced, we can get a embrace on them in subjecter terms. The JOURNEY metaphor is usually used in umteen languages. In English, we turn in many an(prenominal) an(prenominal) smells where the concept of hire it away is practically depict as that of a journey, which exit be referred to as LOVE IS A JOURNEY metaphor. For example, reconcile a scent at the sticking common facets 7 Look how furthermost weve come. Were at a crossroads. Well just invite to go our separate shipway. We cant turn back now. I dont think this relationship is going anywhere.Where are we? Were stuck. Its been a long, bumpy road. This relationship is a dead-end street street. Were just spin our wheels. Weve gotten off the baffle. (Lakoff & Johnson 1979, 44) In every case, discern is insure in terms of a journey. It is clear that the lovers are the travellers, and the relationship is the vehicle. The nominate of the journey is for the travelers to wee-wee a destination, more precisely, for the lovers to accomplish their goals of common interest. What the dead-end street and spinning wheels are alluding to are the surdies in reaching that destination.The utilisation of these behaviors is to bring forward the listener to draw an inference. emergence the expression Where are we? for examp le. Outside of the love metaphor context, it is a simple question. The metaphorical context invites the listener to reflect on how things came to be the way they are, how they might have moody out differently, and what could be done now to 8 change them. By pass judgment the scenario of making a journey toward the operation of love, we can comprehend the analogy used to reason the human relationship of love.To end the section on a similar note, it is sometimes said that English secondlanguage learners have trouble with expressions care Were at a crossroads or its been a long, bumpy road. The ilkly reason for this is because the difficult part of getting language proficiency does not so such(prenominal) lie in the process of master the vocabulary or grammar of a language, but mastering the metaphors typically used in the language. This is especially the case since dictionaries want only limited account of the metaphorical meaning of words and develops.The problem is that wa ys of talk about the experience of love in English language are metaphorically absent in the learners language and culture. 1 in that respectfore, learning to bring in do the metaphorical relations in language is key not only to judgement the way the speakers of the language conceptualize the world but also to acquiring language proficiency. The concept is metaphorically structured, the activity is metaphorically structured, and, consequently, the language is metaphorically structured. 3. doo and miti? Much comparable in the English language, the JOURNEY metaphor is a frequently used concept in the Japanese language.Take a look at the following examples of the LOVE 1 An idiom is a word or phrase that is morphologically or syntactically irregular with respect to the language in which it occurs. Native speakers a good deal know an expression is idiomatic when asked. Metaphors, on the other hand, often occur below the level of consciousness. 9 IS A JOURNEY metaphor in Japanese (1) a. ?????? koi no katamiti kippu love GEN uni containional ticket One-way ticket to love b. ???? koizi no yami loves tract GEN darkness Love is blind c. ????? miti naranu koi elbow room go away not love outlaw(a) love affair d. ???? huuhu no miti economise and wife GEN path marital value Again, in every case love is unsounded in terms of a journey. It is clear that the lovers are the travelers, and the relationship is the vehicle. It is noteworthy to mention, that the relationship can do different forms of a vehicle in the journey. ac noesis that in that location 10 is no private consistent vehicle that the journey metaphors all use. In example (1a) the vehicle of the relationship is some mode of creation transport. reach a situation when this expression is used.Given that this expression about a relationship is understood in terms of travel, the kind of debate evoked should generally reflect a situation where the lovers (travelers) are in a quick progressing rela tionship (vehicle) to their goal of common interest (destination). The one-way ticket most likely implies that returning back to the start of the journey is not considered for the travellers, and that they are troubled approaching their destination as if they were locomotion by some mode of public transport. The rest of the examples, unlike (1a), do not specify the means of transportation for the travelers.For examples (1b) and (1c), this is because the nominate of the expression is to describe the impediments the travelers represent in pursuing the destination. The literal translation of the two would be darkness of loves pathway, and path that will not subscribe to the destination of love. What the darkness and mis headd path are alluding to is the difficulties in reaching the destination, both of which implies that a change of action require to be taken to successfully reach the destination. (1d) literally translates the path of the marital couple. This expression represent s the ideal path a married couple should take. Take a look at the following for examples of the LIFE IS A JOURNEY metaphor, which is also commonly found in both languages. (2) 11 a. ???????? zinsei yama ari tani ari manner mountain exists valley exists Life has its ups and protrude b. ???? ikiru miti live (vb) road The road of manner c. ????????? senri no miti mo ippo kara meter-mile GEN road FOC dance ABL A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step Notice that the literal translation of these expressions in Japanese and English are highly idiomatic.This is why a word for word edition of the expressions would seem un rude(a). In example (2a), the lexical items yama mountain and tani valley are translated ups and downs. perspicacious that this expression represents life as a sort of journey with obstacles to overcome, we can mull the logic behind this expression without much effort. A traveler would occasionally encounter times of relative ease and difficulty throughout the journey. While straitsing up a mountain is a big(a) task, walking down the mountain into the valley requires considerably less effort.What the metaphor suggests is that the experience of life is much like that. There are times of ups and downs, good and bad, liberal and hard etc. Nevertheless, if the expression were to appease in its literal translation, life has its 12 mountains and valleys, it would not be too difficult for the English speaker to comprehend the message being communicated. Since LIFE IS A JOURNEY is a commonly used metaphor in the English language as well, the enormous amount of information that is not explicitly provided will be understood from the cognition of how life is understood in relation to a journey.It is not that the languages do not have expressions that are alike in meaning, but it is more that the lexical items used to construct a metaphorical expression in one language do not match the lexical items in the other. Therefore, even i f the expression is quaint to the hearer, condition that it is a commonly used metaphor in the languages, an intelligent affect can be make to make sense of it all. The following is an example of the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY metaphor (3) ??????? gakumon ni oodoo nasi scholarship DAT royal-road non-existent There is no Royal route to learningBased on the meaning of this expression described in the Nihon Kokugo Daijiten, the phrase is a translation of the proverbial expression There is no Royal Road to learning. This phrase is legendarily attributed to Euclid, who is said to have used it in reply to a kings request for an easier way to learn geometry. A Persian Royal Road actually existed it was a 1677-mile long driveway stretching, in spic-and-spanfangled terms, from the center of Iran to northern Turkey. To get from the starting point to the end of the highway 13 is believed to have taken over 90 days on foot, but only a week by horse (Herodotus 1889, 213).By metaphorizing the pr ocess of learning geometry as a lengthy journey, the claim that a Royal Road did not exist not only signified that thither was no shortcut but also that even a king could not make one, as the Persian kings had made the Royal Road. It is evoke to note that notwithstanding long survival and overuse, the metaphor retains an aggregation for speakers of many languages and is still used. Even Sigmund Freud magnificently described dreams as Royal Road to the unconscious in The Interpretation of Dreams, 1889 1998. In the context of Japanese culture, however, there are many expressions where learning is understood in terms of a journey.The reason for this is because the metaphor LEARNING IS A JOURNEY is a more owing(p) bluster in the Japanese language. The following are commonly used expressions of the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY metaphor in Japanese (4) a. ??????? manabi no miti o aruku learning GEN road ACC walk (vb) Walk the way of learning b. ?????? manabi no miti-annai learning GEN roa d map A devolvepost of learning 14 c. ??????? manabi no sen-ri no miti learning GEN thousand-ri GEN road The thousand-ri way of learning d. ???????????? manabi no miti ni wa owari wa nai learning GEN the way LOC TOP end TOP non-existent There is no end in the way of learning The examples in (4) shows that a metaphorical noun phrase ? path modified by ?? learning can be used in the discordant expressions. In every case, learning is understood in terms of a journey, and it is clear that the learner is a traveler in pursuit of acquaintance. The purpose of the journey is for the traveler to reach a desired destination, more specifically, acquiring association. In these examples, learning relates to journey in the sense that the traveler will leave his or her known surround and venture into an unknown place where new discoveries will be made.In example (4a) the traveler is selfpropelled. That is to say, the travelers volition is the vehicle. The expression is in all likelihood used in situations where the psyche using the phrase is still in the progress of acquiring knowledge. Example (4b) illustrates a situation where the learner (traveler) makes use of visible(prenominal) resources to alleviate the impediments of reaching the destination (acquiring knowledge). For instance, a traveler will often make use of guideposts as a guide for reaching the desired destination. Similarly, the learner will often rely on teachers, books, 15 r the like to guide them to acquiring knowledge. (4c) illustrates a situation where acquiring knowledge is an arduous task, and it compares this difficulty of attaining knowledge to long distance travel. (4d) is a common expression saying that there is no end to learning. Again, we know that all of these expressions are metaphorical because none of them would make sense literally. much examples are provided in (5) (5) a. ?? zyoodoo become road (the way) completing the path of becoming a Buddha b. ?? zyuudoo gentleness road (the way ) judo c, ??????? aiki syuutoku e no miti aiki eruditeness -to GEN road (the way) The way to aikido acquisition harmonize to the Nihon Kokugo Daijiten, zyoodoo is Buddhist terminology that refers to each the moment a Bodhisattva becomes a Buddha aft(prenominal) completing indisputable 16 practices and attains enlightenment, or the time Shakyamuni became enlightened sitting under the Bo tree. This Sino-Japanese term in its literal sense receivedly meant to attain the way. Zyoodoo is metaphorical inasmuch as it referred in the first instance to the historical Buddha but could past refer to someone else becoming a Buddha this was no interrogative borrowed from a preexisting metaphor use in Chinese.In the case of judo, as shown in (5b), we know that this is in fact a native Japanese noun coined in the Meiji termination by the scholar Kano Jigoro (Watson 2008, xv). Before this coinage, this style of fighting was referred to as zyuzyutsu. Which makes sense since warriorlike libe ral arts terminology prior to the Meiji period generally used the suffix ? zyutu art, means, technique instead of the suffix ? doo. Zyuzyutsu was a uncouth method of open handed bit that Kano felt was too violent for the modern age. Thus, in the interest of safety and practicality, he turned it into a sport under the name judo.The new institution Kodokan??? that he opened in Tokyo was, in his eyes, a place where one is manoeuver on a road to follow in life (Watson 2008, xvi). It must be the case that he applied the suffix doo due to the fact that the metaphorical connotations it carried was appropriate for his philosophy2. The example in (5c) is a title of a book written by Kimura Tatsuo, a mathematics professor at the University of Tsukuba and an aikido enthusiast, about the art of aikido. Syuutoku e no miti generally means the road to acquiring. This phrase is often used to modify the nominal it follows.Thus, aiki syuutoku e no miti in its metaphorical sense means the roa d to gaining knowledge about aikido. 2 human beingy other traditional arts and martial arts employed the suffix doo (e. g. ?? kendoo kendo, ?? kyuudoo archery, ?? sadoo tea ceremony, way of tea). 17 The reason for the many LEARNING IS A JOURNEY expressions arising in the Japanese language is attributed to an earlier set from the Chinese classic Daodejing of Laozi. The Chinese word dao (road, way ? ) has long had strong metaphorical connotation of spiritual path or way. When the oanword and character were adopted in Japanese in the 1st millennium CE, along with them came the connotation. As stated earlier, learning is understood in part by the journey metaphor. Since this thought is crucial to the formation of the meaning, we see an abundance of words whose meanings are determine by this metaphor. Take the native Japanese verb ??? mitibiku to guide to lead to show the way, for example. It is a compound word of ? miti and ?? hiku to lead, pull. This word has departed from the lite ral meaning establish on the meaning of components miti and hiku.We can see this from the following excerpt written by the Japanese poet, Yamanoue no Okura in the Manyoshu (6) ????????????????? moromoro no oomikami-tati hunanohe ni mitibiki moosi various NOM deity PLUR prow LOC guide request various gods, I request you to guide this ship by its prow The literal meaning based on the components of the word cannot be applied here however, the metaphorical extension of the meaning can be applied. According to the Nihon Kokugo Daijiten, the word has come to mean guide at least since the 8th 18 carbon, as we can tell from its use in the excerpt.The definition provided here is not the literal meaning, but the metaphorical. The fact that a metaphorical extension has been added to the literal meaning of the word, illustrates how a new metaphorical connotation may be incorporated into the original literal meaning of a word. In the case of ?? , what probably happened was that the literal mea ning it was earlier associated with was bleached out over time, and took on the metaphorical meaning as its dominant meaning. Through these examples, we have seen that the journey metaphor has a significant role in the Japanese language. Since the expressions provided n this section are highly idiomatic, in most cases, a word for word reading of the expressions may not intuitively make sense for the non-native speakers of Japanese. However, that does not take away the fact that the expressions in question surfaces from the same underlying metaphor. There are cases where both languages have an expression that serves the same purpose but the lexical matching is not kind of the same, and there are cases where lexical matchings will be nearly exact. On the other hand, we have also seen how it is contingent for a metaphor to be more salient in one language than in the other.These examples illustrate just how a metaphor common to both languages can manifest itself differently. 4. Lang uacultures and Rich Points To better understand the similarities and differences of the journey metaphor used in the English and Japanese language, I would like to present the concepts 19 languaculture and rich points introduced by Michael Agar in his book Language Shock. Languaculture refers to the notion that a system of change symbols, sounds, gestures, or the like used by a particular community for communication cannot be understood without also intimate the conventional behaviors and beliefs of that community.Therefore, he argues, it is infallible to tie the concept of language and culture in concert whenever talking about language (Agar 1994, 60). Rich point refers to a moment when a person is at a languacultural porthole and encounters a difference in the ways of communicating from his or her cultural assumptions3. permit us look at the study of junkies by Agar to illustrate this example of rich points. Junkie is a term often used to refer to heroine addicts. During hi s biennial service in the U. S. Public wellness gain, Agar worked to help treat heroin addicts.As a linguist, he started on a collection of terms used by the addicts. What he found peculiar about the collection of terms was that even though they spoke the same language as he did, they made use of certain words that was unique to the junkies. For example, the process of injecting heroin would be described in different terms by junkies, as contrasted to people with background in the medical examination field. The premedical student will most likely begin describing the process like the following, Well, you first take this hypodermic syringe, and then while the junkie will say, First, you take the industrial plant, and then According to Agar, the heroin users he met during his service used what is referred to as the works to inject heroin an assembly of the top of a baby pacifier fastened onto an eyedropper with a needle slipped over its determine end and a gasket of thread or paper to hold it tight. For this reason, the term works is 3 The term languaculture refers to the notion that the use of language differs with respect to its culture. Therefore, differences in language use also occur within a language by various other subcultures. 0 generally used in their culture to refer to the instrument used for injecting heroin. Now, suppose a context where two junkies are walking up the stairs in a building. Here is what they say (7) Say man, you got your works with you? Yeah, theyre overcompensate here in my pocket. tiret worry about it. (Agar 1994, 90) after learning what the term works refers to, an ordinary person may infer that this is a situation where a junkie inquires some other to make sure he has the necessary equipment for getting intoxicated. However, that was not the reason for their turn.Instead, they were come to about the possibility of an authority being in the proximity. Since the possession of this instrument justifies arrest, the junkies were concern because they were confined in an enclosed post an enclosed space does not have much room to run or get rid of the evidence. The reason for the exchange quoted above is that one junkie is hard put about the possibility of an authority being in the proximity, and the other reassured that he could get rid of the instrument quickly if an authoritative figure were to appear, since they are right in his pocket.This sort of encounter that arises from ones languacultural assumptions is what Agar refers to rich points. Human beings have much in common all over the world, so similarities in languacultures are numerous and expected, at least for people living in similar ecological circumstances. However, occasionally an unexpected use of language will arise which reflects a difference between the underlying conceptual systems between the two languacultures. These conspicuous differences found in the 21 way two languacultures talk about the same or similar real-world fa cts and events reveal how they are structured.Having effected these points, we can now see the similarities and differences that can be understood in terms of languaculture and rich point. As we have seen, the journey metaphor in Japanese languaculture is similar in many respects to that of the English languaculture. A person of the English languaculture can apply many similar uses of the journey metaphor used in his language to convey messages in Japanese. However, once we took a look at the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY metaphor, we noticed that there is some underlying difference between the two systems of languacultures.This rich point shows that the journey metaphor used in the Japanese languaculture is not always congruent to its uses in the English languaculture, more precisely that the conceptual metaphor LEARNING IS A JOURNEY is a much more salient feature of the Japanese languaculture. The reason why this rich point stands out to the English speaking community is precisely becaus e we place a higher emphasis on knowledge as an entity that can be acquired. Take for example common English expressions like I was hunting for the facts, I had to track that down, he won his degree at Oxford. The emphasis for these examples is that knowledge is something to be collected, whereas in Japanese, they place a stronger emphasis on knowledge as something that is to be patrimonial to the learner through the process of winning in the act, as we have seen in the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY examples. 22 5. Pilgrimages in Japan Now that we have made this point that the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY metaphor is a more prominent feature of Japanese languaculture than English languaculture, let us see how it relates to observations we make about English and Japanese behavioral culture.For one, pilgrimages are loaded with rich points. As we can tell from such determinate literary works like Heike monogatari and Sarashina nikki, pilgrimages have been an important religious practice for the Ja panese people from at least the Heian period. Although it was originally an aristocratic practice, all classes of people were allowed to go on pilgrimages by the time of the capital of Japan period (Vaporis 2008, 165). Due to the development of a issue infrastructure provided with lodging, towns, and horses, this period of public security allowed for the masses to travel comfortably in search of spiritual fulfillment.The commoners were permitted to travel by the authorities as long as they were going on a pilgrimage or had familial purposes. Among the many temples and shrines in Japan, the amount of people making pilgrimages to the Ise shrine increased rapidly. The Ise shrine is a Shinto shrine dedicated to the goddess Amaterasu in the metropolis of Ise in Mie prefecture. Since ancient times, the festivals and offerings of the Ise shrine has been schedule based on the cycle of agriculture. hatful would go to Ise to give thanks to the kami and require for a plentiful harvest. () The desire to make a pilgrimage to Ise Shrine, at least once in ones life was universal among Japanese people of the day. The people who have had the opportunity to sign up the pilgrimage would share the things that they had seen and heard on the 23 journey. These travelers tales invigorate others to undertake the journey, in a cycle that perpetuated the legendary status of the Ise pilgrimage as something that everyone should do at least once in their lives. The capital of Japan period is often referred to as a time of peace and stability in Japan, and as such the people had the means and leisure time to pursue their esthetical enjoyment.To explain, Tokugawa ideology grouped higher cultural attainments into two categories, bu and bun, soldiers and literary arts. A gentleman of the time were expected to show interest in bun, more so than bu. Bun embraced reading and writing, Chinese thought, poetry, floor and literature, noh dance and drama, tea ceremony, and other accustomed arts (Totman 1993, 186). Once one has acquired healthy skill in the art of pursuit, they would often go on a pilgrimage to learn more about the art and methods used in distant places. Thus, pilgrimages were an important learning experience for the Japanese people.Take the famous haiku poet Matsuo Basho for example. In his travel diary Oku no hoso miti (Keene 1996), Basho journeys on foot to see the sites that had inspired famous poets onward him. He knew the location of the places the poems described, and it was important for him to get a direct experience with the inspiration the poets must have felt when composing their poem. Bashos descriptions of the places he visited, many of which were at shrines and temples, were significant not just because the sites were awe-inspiring, but because of the legends and poems associated with the locations.Like the poems that inspired Basho to take on the journey, his own work have in turn inspired others to travel and learn about the places he talk about from a first hand experience. 24 Sangaku pilgrimages are another example. Sangaku are geometrical puzzles written on timberlanden tablets, which were placed as offerings at Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines. In Japan, it is fairly natural to hang wooden tablets at shrines and temples for centuries before sangaku came into existence, worshipers would bring gifts like the sort to local shrines. The kami, it was said, loved horses, but horses were expensive.So a worshipper who could not expend to offer a living one, offered a horse draw on a piece wood instead. In fact, many tablets from the fifteenth century and earlier depict horses (Fukagawa & Rothman 2008, 8). However, there was also a practical purpose in hanging the tablets. Ordinary people at the time could not afford to publish books with their novel mathematical problems. Therefore, as an alternative solution to gain recognition, they took up the ancient custom of bringing votive tablets to temples and b egan to hang sangaku to advertise their work (Fukagawa & Rothman 2008, 21).Just like the poets who would travel for the sake of knowledge and experience, a number of geometers including Hodoji paneling, and Sakuma Yoken took sangaku pilgrimages to teach mathematics, set ahead amateurs and lovers of geometry, and to hang and see previously hung sangaku in temples around the country. Among these itinerants was Yamaguchi Kanzan, a mathematician from the school of Hasegawa Hiroshi. In his journeys, he recorded a substantial travel diary that describes the sights, meetings with friends and other mathematicians, and the sangaku, problems he came across.With many distant mathematicians, he has discussed new technical methods of firmness mathematical problems. If you spoil this book, he claimed, then you will be able to know and obtain without travelling the new technical 25 methods of solving problems of far-away mathematicians (Fukagawa & Rothman 2008, 244). () Pilgrimages were an important method of self-cultivation for people from all walks for life, with interests ranging from martial arts to moral philosophy. There are many reasons for the rise in popularity of pilgrimages, but it is probably the case that the roots of this trend come from dot Buddhism.The history of Zen begins in Japan with the samurai class of Kamakura. Zen Buddhism had diminished chance of becoming popular in Heian period Kyoto due to the strong impedance of the older schools of Buddhism. Where as in Kamakura, there were no such difficulties. Due to its philosophic and moral genius, Zen appealed greatly to the military classes (Suzuki 1959, 60). As the samurais became a new force in politics, they brought with them the newly embraced theology to the court.This in turn had significant crop in not only the court, but through general cultural life of the Japanese people all the way to the Edo period. Buddhist models inspired many of these pilgrimages that we see throughout hist ory. The prototypical pilgrimages example in Japan is when Zen priests go on angya pilgrimage ?? , which literally means, to go on foot. Historically, angya referred to the common practice of Zen monks and nuns travelling from master to master, or monastery to monastery, in search of someone to practice Zen with (Baroni 2002, 8).So pilgrimages in Japan took the introduction of Buddhism, which after became associated with prominent Chinese cultures like Daoism, as we can tell from the various pilgrims mentioned earlier. The fire thing about it is that this religious practice of undertaking a pilgrimage as a method of self-cultivation is emulated by 26 various other disciplines like the ones mentioned in example (5). It is also interesting to note the varying degree of prominence the intellectual journey has in the context of Japanese culture as contrary to the anglophone culture.Although the concept of an intellectual journey exists in the English-speaking world (e. g. visiting na tional parks, field trips etc. ), it is not quite as common or close to everyday consciousness as it is in Japan. The lack of explicit metaphors that reflect the notion of LEARNING IS A JOURNEY in English languaculture suggests a correlation of this difference with cultural behavior. The question then arises, what is the nature of the correlation between the observations we make in the linguistic and non-linguistic behavior we see about the Japanese?Is it the fact pilgrimages have had played a big role in the history of Japanese culture that because of the metaphorical bias of LEARNING IS A JOURNEY? Or is the causal relation the other way around? Or is there some third explanation? The main reason for the correlation we find between these two types of behavior is probably not a direct causal relationship between the two. Instead, the impact of Daoism and Buddhism on Japanese thought have probably played a role in making both the metaphor and the pilgrimage behavior prominent in Jap an.This is indicated by the fact that many pilgrimages were inspired by Buddhist models, which also had a great impact on vocabulary and the content of literature the relationship therefore seems the result of a common set of historical circumstances affecting both linguistic and non-linguistic behaviors. some(prenominal) are an expression of this influence. 6. Concluding remarks 27 In this paper, I have given a contrastive analysis of the role the journey metaphor plays in the English and Japanese languages.I have argued that although there are many similarities in the use of the journey metaphor in the two languages, there also are remarkable differences in that the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY metaphor is a much more salient feature of the Japanese language. Based on the concepts languaculture and rich points, I have move to show that the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY metaphor is a locus of an important rich point in Japanese culture, in the sense that it is an underlying conceptual metaphor, which manifests itself in both the linguistic and nonlinguistic behavior of the Japanese culture.To illustrate how this conclusion might be applied to non-linguistic behavior, I have also examined the issue of pilgrimages. It seems that the correlation between the salience of the metaphor and pilgrimages are due to a common set of historical causes it does not seem to be the case that the salience of the metaphor was caused by the practice of pilgrimages or vice versa. A contrastive analysis of metaphorical conceptualisation proves to be a useful method when examining behavioral differences between two cultures.Further inquiry of this kind should help understand similarities and differences in cultural cognition, linguistics, sociology, and ideology. 28 Work Cited Agar, Michael. 1994. Language Shock Understanding the Culture of Conversation. untested York William Morrow and Company, Inc. Baroni, Helen. 2002. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism. New York The Rosen make Group, Inc. Deutscher, Guy. 2010. Through the Language Glass why the World Looks Different In early(a) Languages. New York Metropolitan Books Frellesvig, Bjarke. 2010.A History of the Japanese Language. Cambridge Cambridge University iron out. Freud, Sigmund. 1889 1998. The Interpretation of Dreams. Trans. James Strachey. New York Avon. Fukagawa, Hidetoshi & Rothman, Tony. 2008. Sacred Mathematics Japanese synagogue Geometry. Princeton Princeton University invite. Keene, Donald. 1996. The Narrow Road to Oku. Tokyo Kodansha internationalist Ltd. Lakoff, George & Johnson, Mark. 1979. Metaphors We Live By. gelt University of Chicago Press 29 Herodotus. 1889. The History of Herodotus A New English Version.Trans. Rawlinson, George, Rawlinson, Henry, & Wilkinson, John. New York D. Appleton and Company Suzuki, Daisetz. 1959. Zen and Japanese Culture. Princeton Princeton University Press Totman, Conrad. 1993. Early neo Japan. Berkley and Los Angeles University of California Press Vaporis, Constantine. 2008. Tour of Duty Samurai, Military Service In Edo, and The Culture of Early Modern Japan. Hawaii University of Hawaii Press Watson, Brian N. 2008. Judo Memoirs of Jigoro Kano. capital of Seychelles Trafford Publishing 30